Category: Reading Hieroglyphs

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Reading Hieroglyphs

Hieroglyphic Grammar – Making Words Feminine

Let’s read some hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ!

TodayΒ π“‡π“‡‹π“ˆ–π“‡³Β we are going to be looking at some grammar – how to make a word feminine! The inscriptionΒ π“Ÿπ“›π“₯Β in the picture 𓏏𓅱𓏏 says the word β€œgoddess π“ŠΉπ“.” The word β€œgod π“ŠΉβ€ is an extremely popular word and is used throughout ancient Egyptian inscriptionsΒ π“Ÿπ“›π“₯!

The β€œcloth wound on a pole π“ŠΉβ€ symbol is both an ideogram and a determinative for the word β€œgod.” The symbol is thought to sound like β€œntr” which probably sounds like β€œneter.” 

Yesterday in my post I mentioned that the β€œflat loaf of bread 𓏏” is a uniliteral phonogram used to represent the sound β€œt.” It also functions as the ideogram for the word β€œbread 𓏏𓏺” and can be used to make words feminine when placed at the end of the word! 

A Note: just because the β€œπ“β€ appears in a doesn’t mean that the word is automatically feminine – it must be at the end of the word! All nouns in Middle Egyptian were either masculine or feminine, and the masculine nouns had no special ending! The ending of β€œπ“β€ is just an ending, and is not part of the root of the word. 

Here’s some examples of some words that become feminine with the β€œπ“β€:

β€œπ“Œ’π“ˆ– brother” and β€œπ“Œ’π“ˆ–π“ sister”

β€œπ“ŠΉ god” and β€œgoddeHieroglyphic Grammar – Making Words Femininess π“ŠΉπ“β€

β€œπ“‹Ύπ“ˆŽπ“€€ male ruler” and β€œπ“‹Ύπ“ˆŽπ“π“β€ (here not only is 𓏏 added but the determinative changes too) 

β€œπ“ŽŸ Lord” and β€œLady π“ŽŸπ“β€ 

β€œπ“Œ³π“Ήπ“„Ώπ“„› lion” and β€œπ“Œ³π“Ήπ“„Ώπ“π“„› lioness”

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Reading Hieroglyphs

“Welcome” and “Come” in Hieroglyphs

Let’s read some hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ!

TodayΒ π“‡π“‡‹π“ˆ–π“‡³ we are going to be looking at a word π“Œƒπ“‚§π“…±π“€ that has two 𓏻 meanings! The wordΒ π“Œƒπ“‚§π“…±π“€Β is β€œπ“‡π“‡‹π“‚»β€ which can mean β€œcome” or β€œwelcome” depending on the context!Β 

The β€œreed with legs 𓇍” symbol is a combination of the β€œreed π“‡‹β€ and the β€œwalking legs π“‚»β€ symbols. π“‡ is a uniliteral phonogram symbol, and is usually associated with the sound β€œj.” 

The β€œreed 𓇋” is a very popular symbol that I’m sure you all recognize! π“‡‹ is also a uniliteral phonogram symbol, and is also associated with the sound β€œj.” This symbol can also act as an ideogram for the word β€œreed 𓇋𓏺.” When the symbol is doubled β€œπ“‡Œβ€ it is associated with the sound β€œy.” Now, most will translate the β€œreed 𓇋” as having the sound of β€œi,” but that sound association only became popularized during Greek times! 

The β€œwalking legs 𓂻” symbol is a determinative in words that have to do with motion. It can also function as a biliteral phonogram and was associated with the sound β€œjw.” π“‚» could also function as an ideogram for the word β€œstep π“‚»π“Ί.” 

So all together, π“‡π“‡‹π“‚» would have possibly been pronounced like β€œΔ±Ν—Δ±Ν—β€ or β€œjj”!! In this word, β€œπ“‡π“‡‹β€ are the phonograms and β€œπ“‚»β€ is the determinative! The determinatives at the end of words π“Œƒπ“‚§π“π“€ were not pronounced and instead acted like punctuation! The determinative β€œsummarized” the meaning of the word π“Œƒπ“‚§π“…±π“€ and let you know that the word π“Œƒπ“‚§π“…±π“€ was finished! 

So if you are new here, Welcome π“‡π“‡‹π“‚» to @ancientegyptblog π“ƒ£πŸ˜€!!! 

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Reading Hieroglyphs

Alternate Hieroglyphic Spelling of “Duamutef”

Let’s read some hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ!

Today π“‡π“‡‹π“ˆ–𓇳 we are going to be looking at an alternate spelling for the name π“‚‹π“ˆ– of the god π“ŠΉ Duamutef π“‡Όπ“‚Ÿπ“π“†‘! Usually, Duamutef is written as β€œπ“‡Όπ“…π“π“†‘,” however, β€œπ“‡Όπ“‚Ÿπ“π“†‘β€ is an alternate spelling for his name π“‚‹π“ˆ–! While it is only a one symbol difference, that could confuse people who are just learning which is why I wanted to talk about it! Most of the deities in the Egyptian pantheon had multiple ways that their names π“‚‹π“ˆ–π“¦ written in inscriptions π“Ÿπ“›π“₯! Another less common way to write Duamutef’s name is β€œπ“‚§π“―π“‡Όπ“…π“π“†‘,” but I have rarely seen that spelling used! 

Let’s take a look at Duamutef’sΒ π“‡Όπ“‚Ÿπ“π“†‘Β name π“‚‹π“ˆ– in hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ! All of the symbols in Duamutef’sΒ π“‡Όπ“‚Ÿπ“π“†‘Β name π“‚‹π“ˆ– are phonogram symbols, which means that they represent sounds!Β 

The β€œstar 𓇼”  functions as a triliteral phonogram for the sound β€œdw3” (almost like β€œdua”). Triliteral means that the symbol represents three consonants! In other words, it can also function as a determinative or ideogram. 

The β€œforearm with bread π“‚Ÿβ€œ symbol could either function as a uniliteral or biliteral phonogram depending ok the word! π“‚Ÿ represented the sounds β€œm” or β€œmj.” The β€œforearm with bread π“‚Ÿβ€ could also be a determinative in the word for β€œgive π“‚‹π“‚Ÿ.”

The β€œflat loaf of bread 𓏏” is a uniliteral phonogram used to represent the sound β€œt.” It also functions as the ideogram for the word β€œbread 𓏏𓏺” and can be used to make words feminine! 

The β€œhorned viper 𓆑” functions as a uniliteral phonogram and represents the sound β€œf.” In other words, it can function as a determinative. 

So Duamutef’s π“‡Όπ“‚Ÿπ“π“†‘ name π“‚‹π“ˆ– in hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ is something like β€œduamwttf” – which is very similar to β€œDuamutef!” Most of the major deities have Greek names π“‚‹π“ˆ–π“¦ that we use to identify them, instead of their actual Egyptian name π“‚‹π“ˆ–. For example, β€œAnubis” is a Greek name – β€œInpu” is what the ancient Egyptians would have called Anubis π“‡‹π“ˆ–π“Šͺ𓅱𓃣! 

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Reading Hieroglyphs

Pylon Shaped Stela of Rameses II

Let’s read some hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ!

TodayΒ π“‡π“‡‹π“ˆ–π“‡³Β we are going to be looking at a β€œPylon Shaped Stela of Rameses II” (c.Β 1279–1213 B.C.E.) at the MET. This piece is made of limestoneΒ π“‡‹π“ˆ–π“ˆ™π“Œ‰Β and describes Rameses IIΒ π“‡³π“„Šπ“§π“‡³π“‰π“ˆ–!Β 

Here is the left two columns:

π“©π“›π“ˆ˜π“„Ÿπ“‹΄π“‡“ – Rameses II (Birth Name)

𓉑 – Hathor

π“ŽŸπ“ – Lady 

𓆭𓏏 – Sycamore 

𓇔𓏏 – Southern 

π“ŒΊ – Beloved 

Put all together, this inscription reads: β€œRameses II, Beloved of Hathor, Lady of the Southern Sycamore.” 

Here are the right two columns: 

π“‡³π“„Šπ“§π“‡³π“‰π“ˆ– – Rameses II (Throne Name)

𓉑 – Hathor

π“ŽŸπ“ – Lady 

π“‹€π“π“π“ˆŠ – West

π“ŒΊ – Beloved 

Put all together, this inscription reads: β€œRameses II, Beloved of Hathor, Lady of the West.” 

Hathor π“‰‘ has the title β€œLady of the West π“ŽŸπ“π“‹€π“π“π“ˆŠβ€ because of her roles was to provide peace and solace to the souls π“‚“π“‚“π“‚“ of the deceased π“…“𓏏𓏱 as they entered the afterlife π“‡Όπ“„Ώπ“π“‰. Many people obviously associate Hathor π“‰‘ with love, joy π“„«π“π“„£, music π“‰”π“‡Œπ“†Έ etc, but she was also a prominent funerary goddess π“ŠΉπ“! 

Hathor π“‰‘ has the title β€œLady of the Southern Sycamore π“ŽŸπ“π“†­π“π“‡”𓏏” or just β€œLady of the Sycamore π“ŽŸπ“π“ˆ–𓉔𓏏𓆭” because the sycamore tree π“ˆ–𓉔𓏏𓆭 was one of the native trees in Egypt π“†Žπ“…“π“π“Š–, and it grew at the edge of the desert π“…Ÿπ“‚‹π“π“ˆŠ! This would put it near necropolises, tombs π“‡‹π“«π“Šƒπ“‰π“¦ etc, so it was associated with the dead π“…“𓏏𓏱! Hathor π“‰‘ was considered one of the tree goddesses π“ŠΉπ“ŠΉπ“ŠΉπ“, along with Isis π“Š¨π“π“₯ and Nut π“Œπ“π“‡―π“€­. 

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Egyptian Artifacts Reading Hieroglyphs

The Sistrum of Pharaoh Teti

Let’s read some hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ!

TodayΒ π“‡π“‡‹π“ˆ–π“‡³Β we are going to be looking at a sistrumΒ π“Šƒπ“ˆ™π“ˆ™π“π“£Β which has the various names π“‚‹π“ˆ–π“¦ of the pharaoh 𓉐𓉻 Teti π“Šͺπ“‡Œ on it!

While most sistrumsΒ π“Šƒπ“ˆ™π“ˆ™π“π“£π“ͺ contain an image 𓏏𓅱𓏏 of the goddess π“ŠΉπ“ Hathor 𓉑 on the handle, this is actually one of the earliest sistrumsΒ π“Šƒπ“ˆ™π“ˆ™π“π“£π“ͺΒ ever found (c.Β 2323–2291Β B.C.E.) and is dated to the 6th Dynasty (Old Kingdom) so it is a little bit different than the sistrumsΒ π“Šƒπ“ˆ™π“ˆ™π“π“£π“ͺΒ we are used to seeing! The top part of the sistrumΒ π“Šƒπ“ˆ™π“ˆ™π“π“£ which contains the hieroglyphsΒ π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺΒ is supposed to be a shrineΒ π“π“Šƒπ“…“π“‚œπ“‰.

The hieroglyphsΒ π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ on the sistrumΒ π“Šƒπ“ˆ™π“ˆ™π“π“£ are a list of theΒ pharaoh 𓉐𓉻 Teti’s π“Šͺπ“‡Œ various names π“‚‹π“ˆ–π“₯! Something interesting is that Teti’s π“Šͺπ“‡Œ names (except the birth name) are only mentioned on this sistrumΒ π“Šƒπ“ˆ™π“ˆ™π“π“£Β – I don’t think the names π“‚‹π“ˆ–π“₯ have been inscribed anywhere else! Usually just Teti π“Šͺπ“‡Œ is seen! Also, Teti π“Šͺπ“‡Œ Β doesn’t seem to have a throne name π“‚‹π“ˆ–!! Let’s take a closer look!Β 

Let’s start from the right-most column:

π“†₯ – King of Upper and Lower Egypt

(𓅭𓇳π“Šͺπ“‡Œ) – Son of Ra, Teti (in the Old Kingdom, the titles were sometimes placed in the cartouche) (Birth Name) 

Left-most column: 

π“…’π“‹΄π“Š΅π“π“Šͺ – Sehotep Nebty (The One Who Has Satisfied the Two Lands) (Nebty Name)

π“„₯π“…‰ – Bik Nebu Sema (The Uniter) (Golden Horus Name)

Middle column:

π“‹΄π“Š΅π“π“Šͺπ“ˆ™π“ˆ™ – Sehotep Tawy (The One Who Pacifies the Two Lands) (Horus Name) 

The bottom row: 

𓏙 – Given 

π“‹Ή – Life

π“Œ€ – Strength

𓆖 – Eternity

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Reading Hieroglyphs

The Names of Pharaoh Merenptah (Usurped Statue Part II)

Let’s read some hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ!

TodayΒ π“‡π“‡‹π“ˆ–π“‡³Β we are going to be taking a closer look at one of the statues π“„šπ“ˆ–π“π“­π“€Ύπ“ͺ that MerenptahΒ π“‡³π“ƒ’π“ˆ–π“ˆ˜π“ŠΉπ“ŠΉπ“ŠΉΒ usurped from Amenhotep IIIΒ π“‡‹π“ π“ˆ–π“Š΅π“‹Ύπ“‹†! There are definitely some familiar hieroglyphic π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ phrases here that some of you will recognize!! This statue is at the π“„šπ“ˆ–π“π“­π“€Ύ MET!

The hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ here show three 𓏼 names π“‚‹π“ˆ–π“¦: the Horus Name, the Throne Name and the Given Name! Since the symbols are pointing to the left, let’s start reading from the left!Β 

π“‚‘π“ƒ’π“Ž›π“‚π“€ π“…“π“π“†„ – β€œThe Strong Bull Who Rejoiced in Truth” (Horus Name)

π“ŽŸπ“‡Ώπ“‡Ώ – Lord of the Two Lands

π“žπ“©π“ˆ˜π“ˆ–π“ƒ’ – β€œThe Soul of Ra, Beloved of Amun” (Ba en Ra, mery Amun) (Throne Name)

π“ŽŸπ“ˆπ“₯ – Lord of Appearances 

π“°π“§π“ˆ˜π“ˆ–π“Š΅π“·π“Ί – β€œBeloved of Ptah, Maat is Satisfied” (Mer en Ptah hotep her Maat) (Birth Name) 

Now let’s look at the bottom line of hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ! 

π“ŒΊπ“žπ“©π“ˆ˜π“ˆ–π“ƒ’ – Ba en Ra, mery Amun (Throne Name)

𓅭𓇳 – Son of Ra

π“ŽŸπ“ˆπ“₯ – Lord of Appearances 

π“ŒΊπ“°π“§π“ˆ˜π“ˆ–π“Š΅π“·π“Ί – Merenptah (Birth Name) 

π“‡‹π“ π“ˆ–π“‡³π“Ί – Amun-Ra

π“ŒΉ – Beloved 

𓋍 – this symbol on the side of the statue π“„šπ“ˆ–π“π“­π“€Ύ is thought to be representative of the unification of Upper π“‡“ and Lower π“†€ Egypt.

Something else that is interesting is that there are name π“‚‹π“ˆ– variants on the same statue π“„šπ“ˆ–𓏏𓏭𓀾! Name π“‚‹π“ˆ– variants were just different ways to write the same name π“‚‹π“ˆ– in hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ! 

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Reading Hieroglyphs

The Horus Name of Rameses II

Let’s read some hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ!

Today π“‡π“‡‹π“ˆ–𓇳 we are going to be looking at the Horus Name for the pharaoh 𓉐𓉻 Rameses II! So far, I have really only spoken about the Throne Name (π“‡³π“„Šπ“§π“‡³π“‰π“ˆ–) and the Birth Name (π“‡‹π“ π“ˆ–π“ˆ˜π“‡³π“Ίπ“„Ÿπ“‹΄π“‡“), so let’s take a closer look at the Horus Name! 

The Horus Name is the oldest way that a pharaoh’s 𓉐𓉻 name π“‚‹π“ˆ– was written/identified and is one of five 𓏾 ways to write the name π“‚‹π“ˆ– of a pharaoh 𓉐𓉻. The Horus Name consists of three elements: the palace facade π“Š, Horus the Falcon π“…ƒ standing on top of the palace π“Š, and the name π“‚‹π“ˆ– of the pharaoh 𓉐𓉻 within the palace π“Š. The palace π“Š hieroglyph π“ŠΉπ“Œƒ is pronounced like β€œserekh” and some Egyptologists are now referring to the Horus Name as the Serekh Name. This was basically the early version of the cartouche! 

Rameses II π“‡‹π“ π“ˆ–π“ˆ˜π“‡³π“Ίπ“„Ÿπ“‹΄π“‡“ had a lot of different variations of his Horus Name, so let’s take a look at the two 𓏻 that are pictured! 

π“‚‘π“ƒ’π“›π“ŒΊ – β€œStrong Bull, Beloved of Ra”

π“‚‘π“ƒ’π“§π“ŒΊ – β€œStrong Bull, Beloved of Maat”

β€œStrong Bull π“‚‘π“ƒ’β€œ was a very popular way to start off the Horus Name because bulls 𓃒𓃒𓃒 were a symbol of strength π“Œ€ and fertility, both of which are qualities that pharaohs 𓉐𓉻𓏦 wanted to have!

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Egyptian Artifacts Reading Hieroglyphs

Hieroglyphic Offering Vessel

This is a β€œHieroglyphic Offering Vessel” that is dated to c. 3,000 B.C.E.! For some context, the unification of EgyptΒ π“†Žπ“…“π“π“Š–Β took place c.Β 3,100 B.C.E., and this period was known as the Early Dynastic Period.Β 

In Egypt π“†Žπ“…“π“π“Š–, especially during this time period, the distinction between art and writing π“Ÿπ“›π“₯ was almost interchangeable – so much so that sometimes it is hard to tell if images 𓏏𓅱𓏏𓏦 are hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ, drawings or even both! 

This Offering Vessel is a combination of two 𓏻 hieroglyphic symbols π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ: the ankh π“‹Ή and the ka π“‚“. So, let’s read some hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ!

The β€œAnkh,” is a triliteral phonogram that has the sound β€œΛnḫ” which would sound like β€œankh.” Although it can be an ideogram for β€œsandal strap” and β€œmirror,” the β€œsandal strap π“‹Ήβ€ is much more commonly seen as the word for β€œLife.” 

The β€œtwo arms 𓂓” symbol is a biliteral phonogram that represents the sound β€œk3,” which would be pronounced like β€œka.” This is the symbol for the word β€œsoul.” The ka π“‚“ was the soul or life force of a person. 

So how do life π“‹Ή, soul π“‚“ and this Offering Vessel all connect to each other? Together π“ˆ–π“Š—, the life π“‹Ή and soul π“‚“ form an essential relationship between the living π“‹Ήπ“ˆ–π“ and the dead π“…“𓏏𓏱. Even if the person is dead, the ka π“‚“ still requires nourishment in the form of food 𓇬𓀁𓅱𓏔π“₯ and drink. This Offering Vessel allows the ka π“‚“ to receive water π“ˆ—, so it can continue to live on. 

Essentially, the vessel allows for the ka π“‚“ to continue to receive offerings π“Š΅π“π“Šͺ𓏏𓏔𓏦 so it can continue to be sustained! It’s always amazing to me how Egyptian funerary beliefs didn’t really change over time, they just continued to evolve, for example, into False Doors and Offering Tables π“‚π“ƒ€π“…‘𓄿𓋃π“ͺ! 

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Reading Hieroglyphs

“Life, Stability, and Strength” in Hieroglyphs

Let’s read some hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ!

Today π“‡π“‡‹π“ˆ–𓇳 we are going to be looking at a popular inscription π“Ÿπ“›π“₯! This inscription π“Ÿπ“›π“₯ is on an ostracon, which is basically either a broken piece of limestone π“‡‹π“ˆ–π“ˆ™π“Œ‰ (in this case), pottery π“ π“ˆ–𓇋𓏋, a rock π“‡‹π“ˆ–π“‚‹π“ˆ™, etc. that was used for drawing/writing practice π“‹΄π“…“π“„§π“œ. You can definitely tell that this was practice π“‹΄π“…“π“„§π“œ because you can still see the red π“‚§π“ˆ™π“‚‹π“…Ÿ grid lines on the limestone π“‡‹π“ˆ–π“ˆ™π“Œ‰! The grid lines were really important because it allowed the artist to draw out the hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ evenly, so everything was the same size!

I have definitely spoken about this phrase before, but let’s take a closer look! 

π“‹Ή – Life 

π“Š½ – Stability 

π“Œ€ – Strength 

The β€œsandal strap π“‹Ήβ€ more commonly known as the β€œAnkh,” is a triliteral phonogram that has the sound β€œΛnḫ” which would sound like β€œankh.” Should it can be an ideogram for β€œsandal strap” and β€œmirror,” the β€œsandal strap π“‹Ήβ€ is much more commonly seen as the word for β€œLife.” 

The β€œreed column π“Š½β€ more commonly known as the β€œDjed Pillar” is a biliteral phonogram that has the sound β€œαΈd” which sounds like β€œDjed.” It also functions as an ideogram for β€œStability,” like in the inscription above. The Djed Pillar π“Š½ is thought to represent the spine of Osiris π“Ήπ“Š¨π“€­. 

The β€œanimal headed staff π“Œ€β€ is a triliteral phonogram that represents the sounds β€œw3s,” which would probably be pronounced like β€œwas.” The symbol functions as an ideogram for the word β€œstaff,” but most of the time, you will see it represent the word β€œStrength.” 

This common phrase β€œπ“‹Ήπ“Š½π“Œ€β€ is seen everywhere, and a lot of the times appears as β€œπ“™π“‹Ήπ“Š½π“Œ€ – Given Life, Stability and Strength” or β€œπ“™π“‹Ήπ“Š½π“Œ€π“†– – Given Life, Stability and Strength for Eternity.” This phrase was so popular because it held a lot of meaning in ancient Egyptian culture/religion! This phrase is almost like a blessing, ensuring that the person being spoken about in the inscription π“Ÿπ“›π“₯ is all of these qualities! This phrase can be used with both the living π“‹Ήπ“ˆ–𓐍 and the dead π“…“𓏏𓏱!

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Reading Hieroglyphs

“May He Be Foremost…” in Hieroglyphs

Let’s read some hieroglyphs π“ŠΉπ“Œƒπ“ͺ!

Today π“‡π“‡‹π“ˆ–𓇳 we are going to be looking at an inscription π“Ÿπ“›π“₯ from a Middle Kingdom relief from the reign π“‹Ύ of the pharaoh π“‰π“‰» Montuhotep II π“ π“ˆ–π“Ώπ“…±π“Š΅π“π“Šͺ (c. 2010-2000 B.C.E.). 

The inscription π“Ÿπ“›π“₯ reads: π“ƒΊπ“ˆ–π“†‘π“…. Let’s break this down! 

π“ƒΊπ“ˆ– – Be (could also mean β€œExist”) (sounds like β€œwn”)

𓆑 – He (sounds like β€œf”)

𓏅 – Foremost (could also be β€œIn Front Of”)  (sounds like αΈ«nt)

So the translation of π“ƒΊπ“ˆ–𓆑𓏅 would be β€œMay He Be Foremost…” or β€œMay He Be In Front Of.” The name π“‚‹π“ˆ– of a deity π“ŠΉ or other religious figure (such as soul π“‚“) would usually follow, but that part of the relief is cut off! 

By itself, the word β€œπ“ƒΊπ“ˆ–π“†‘β€ can actually mean β€œto be glad” or β€œto be happy” – the last symbol at the end changes the meaning of the phrase! 

The word β€œforemost π“…” can also be written as β€œπ“„‚π“β€ – β€œπ“„‚𓏏” can also be translated as β€œbest.” 

Just like any language, in Middle Egyptian there can be two different ways to write/say the same word or one single word can have multiple meanings!